TAXONOMIC

Taxonomic Classification

Introduction:
Taxonomy is the science of classification and embodies the study of laws and principles that guide us in our efforts to find groupings and associations. All sciences are built upon classifying our experiences, observations, understandings, and so on. The scope of this section includes a listing of notable schemes for grouping / classifying plants (and animals). For example, all living organisms can be grouped according to 6 features.
1. All organisms are highly complex chemical systems
2. All organisms are composed of cells
3. All obtain and use energy
4. All reproduce using the same genetic mechanism, with variation
5. All grow and develop
6. All organisms respond to changes / stimuli in environment
But this classification is too broad to be of use for identifying specific plants. It is important to know that there are different classification schemes designed to fit different needs There are 7 kinds of classification schemes listed and described below. The “appropriate” scheme for a given problem depends upon the needs of the user. One goal of this module is to bring the student’s awareness a variety of taxonomic schemes, generally, and to acquaint the student with the world-wide binomial classification scheme (aka ICBN), specifically. A minor goal of this section is to give some appreciation of the genetic closeness of the plants we already know and use and for those we are becoming familiar with in this course.

The classical Western Latin binomial system has been detailed below and included with it are a pronunciation guide and key. Because much of the world is using Latin names for identifying plants it is incumbent upon the serious student to learn the correct pronunciation of Latin names, and this is another goal of this section.

Appendices Relevant to this section: #5, #7, #9

A. Latin Botanical: There is a variety of ways in which to classify living organisms, the most popular of which is the taxonomy based upon method of Carl Linnaeus early in the 18th century, written in Latin. This system has been formally named the: International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) and its present version is known as the Tokyo Code (1993). According to Gyanendra Pandey, System of Plant Nomenclature in Ayurveda, Chaukhambha, 1997, pp. xxiv, xxv:
“The basis of this taxonomy is morphology and evolutionary relationships within the plant kingdom. This is a well-organized system based on scientific studies of plants for naming taxonomic groups in stable method providing proper naming of plants for determination of their identity with acceptability and uniformity. It directs revision, changing and reviewing the names of plants as well as gives nomenclature to new taxon under provisions and purview of system by putting the nomenclature of the past into order and to provide for that of the future. All the rules of nomenclature, based on six principles, are set in 75 articles in the ICBN comprising provisions, prescriptions, recommendations and principles for the purpose.”

“Thus, the plant nomenclature is an integral part of taxonomic botany, which is an advance subject of biological significance and multidisciplinary studies on taxonomic groups belonging to plant or organisms in vast assemblage which requires scientific studies biologically through the primary observations of nomenclature and identification of plants put for classification in the systematics.”

“Practically, the taxonomy is an art of circumscribing and delimiting the taxonomic units or taxa member of large plant kingdom with aim to provide best biological classification possible and to synthesize all available information for formulating complete and perfect knowledge of plants. The system of plant nomenclature makes the study of plant kingdom possible and various branches or disciplines in botany, biological sciences and all other scientific studies concern with plants that enjoys the basic support of plant nomenclature effectively serving as vehicle of communication and reference of identity of plants bearing botanical nomenclature in standard and systematic patterns.

The fundamental activity of any science is data collection. Some are observations and other data are calculations or measurements. Once classes of data have been established then the science can go about discovering relationships between and among the classes. Without classes finding relationships would be very difficult, indeed.

B. Alphabetical: this may be done by Latin binomial name or common name. It offers no therapeutic insights.

C. Morphological: remedies may be grouped around anatomical features, such as leaf, flower, fruit, seeds, aerial part, whole, plant, rhizome, root, etc. and are known as organized drugs because each is morphologically whole; unorganized drugs are plant materials that have no cellular structure, as in extracts, gums, resins, oils, fats, and waxes.

D. Therapeutic: this scheme is based upon the demonstrated pharmacological actions of a plant, of which there are several possible perspectives:
action-based arrangements— See Appendix #5
body-systems or organ-affinity—See Section 19 (Herbs for Dh±tus & Malas According to DoÃas)
medical theory—offers differing ways of looking at the same herb, for example

E. Biochemical: based upon the notion of active principle or similar constituents, such as saponins, alkaloids, flavones, etc. There is a basis flaw in this approach that stems from viewing the plant as a source of organic drug materials. See Appendix #5

F. Biogenetic: of little value to the herbalist, other than academic interest, this scheme uses ideas of genetic taxonomy and evolutionary relationships between biochemicals found in different plants

G. Geographical: ethno-botanical based

The Classical Scheme Overview
Kingdom: total 5:
Linera – single cell without nucleus
Protista – single cell with nucleus
Fungi – multi-cellular organisms that get their energy from their surroundings
Plants – multi-cellular organisms that get their energy from photo synthesis
Animals – multi-cellular organisms that get their energy from other organisms
Division (for plant kingdom classification purposes) / Phylum (for animal kingdom purposes)
Class The mnemonics for remembering the order of this scheme:
Order King’s Dinner China Of Fine Grain Sand
Family Please Come Out For Good Sports
Genus*
Species*: totals about 1.8 – 1.9 million with an anticipated 99% more to learn/know about
Variety
*These constitute the binomial classification scheme in common use today:
ex.: Homo sapiens, Helicobacter pylori, Withania somnifera, etc.



Here follows a classification based upon the Latin botanical classification scheme. The medicinal plants are arranged according to current opinions of the groupings from which they come in classes, orders, families, genera, and species. Included here are important phyto-therapeutic examples from the ¨yurvedic pharmacopeia. Some examples of Western plants are included to show relationships that may not otherwise be apparent.

Rules for naming newly discovered plants--
1. Any principle desired for species ex. maybe descriptive (the Genus would follow existing name), according to prior name used, the discoverer
2. Must be in Latin
3. One must publish the name in a recognized journal

Exercise: Try to identify the ¨yurvedic materia by the proper Sanskrit name.

Thallophytes
Bacteria & Algae
Bacteriophyta: not of direct relevance as sources of herbal remedies*
Chrysophyta; diatoms, beautiful organisms but not of direct relevance as sources of herbal remedies.
Phaeophyta: The brown algae such as Fucus vesiculosus, bladderwrack-
Rhodophyta: The red algae
Fungi
Phycomycetes: Not of direct relevance as sources of herbal remedies.
Ascomycetes: Includes the yeasts, ergot, Gibberella and Penicillium.
Basidiomycetes: The mushrooms and toadstools. There are edible, toxic & psychoactive species.
Lichen " A lichen is a symbiotic association of an alga and a fungus- A large and important group chat includes such herbs as Cetraria islandica & Usnea spp.

Bryophyta (Phylum)
Hepadcac -Liverworts
Musci - Mosses
Sphagnales: Sphagnum (336 spp)
Pteridophyta (Phylum)
Filices - ferns
Polypodiaceae; Dryopteris (150 spp)
Polypodium (50 spp-)
Articulatae horsetails
Equiseaceae: Equisetum (32 spp.)
Lycopsida ~ club mosses
Lycopodiaceae: Lycopodium (400 spp.)

Note: names of orders end in “ales” families mainly in “aceae”

Gymnosperms - cone bearing plants
Angiosperms – flowering plants (250,000 spp.)

Ginkgoales (I family)
Ginkgoaceae: Ginkgo biloba

Coniferae (6 families)
Pinaceae: Pinus (Pines - 70-100 spp.) Pinus-cedrus deodar
Abies (Firs - 50 spp.) Abies webbiana
Larix (Larches, 11 spp.)
Cupressaceae (19 genera, 130 spp): Juniperus (Juniper - 60 spp.) Juniperus communis
Thuja (Western Hemlock - 5 spp.)
Cupressus (Cypress – 15 - 20 spp.)

Cedrus deodara Loud.
Taxus baccata
Gnetales (3 families)
Ephedraceae: Ephedra (Ma Huang - 40 spp.)


Juglandales (2 families)
Myricaceae (4 genera): Myrica cerifera (bayberry) Myrica esculenta
Juglandaceae (8 genera): Juglans (walnuts)

Salicales (1 family)
Salicaceae: Salix (willows – 35 spp.)
Populus (balm of Gilead – 35 spp.)

Fagales (2 families)
Betulaceae ( 2 genera, 95 spp.) Alnus (alders – 35 spp.)
Betula (birches – 60 spp.)
Fagaceae ( 8 genera, 900 spp.) Fagus (beeches – 10 spp.)
Castanea (sweet chestnut 12 spp.)
Quercus (oaks – 450 spp.)
Urticales (4 families)
Ulmaceae (15 genera, 200 spp.): Ulmus (slippery elms – 45 spp.)
Moraceae (53 genera, 1400 spp.): Morus (mulberrys - 10 spp.)
Cannabinaceae (2 genera, 5 spp.): Cannabis (cannabis – 3 spp.) Cannabis indica
Humulus (hops – 2 spp.)
Urticaceae (45 genera, 550 spp.): Urtica (stinging nettles – 50 spp.)
Ficus religiosa, Ficus hispida, Ficus lacor, Ficus racemosa, Ficus bengalensis, Holoptelea integrifolia, Artocarpus integrifolia, Morus alba

Polygonales (1 family)
Polygonaceae (40 genera, 800 spp.): Rheum (rhubarb 50 spp.) Rheum palmatum
Rumex (dock – 180 spp.) Rumex vesicarius
Fagopyrum (buckwheat – 15 spp.)
Magnoliales (22 families)
Magnoliaceae (12 genera, 230 spp.): Magnolia (magnolia – 180 spp.) Michelia champaca
Liriodendron (tulip trees)
Myristicaceae (18 genera, 300 spp.): Myristica (nutmegs – 120 spp.) Myristica fragrans
Lauraceae (32 genera, 2500 spp.): Cinnamomum (cinnamon – 250 spp.)
Cinnamomum camphora, Litsea glutinosa, Litsea chinensis, Cinnamomum tamala, Cinnamomum zeylanicum

Ranunculales (7 families)
Ranunculaceae (59 genera, 1900 spp.): Ranunculus (buttercups – 400 spp.) Ranunculus sceleratus
Cimicifuga (black cohash)
Aconitum heterophyllum, Aconitum ferox, Coptis teeta, Delphinium denudatum, Thalictrum foliolosum, Nigella sativa
Berberidaceae (14 genera, 575 spp.): Berberis (barberry – 450 spp.) Berberis aristata
Hydrastis (golden seal)
Berberis aristata

Guttiferales (16 families)
Guttiferae (40 genera, 1000 spp.): Hypericum (St. John’s Wort – 400 spp.)

Papaverales (9 families)
Papveraceae (26 genera, 300 spp.): Eschscholtzia (california poppy – 10 spp.)
Sanguinaria (blood root – 1 sp.)
Chelidonium (celandine – 1 sp.)
Papaver (poppies – 100 spp.)
Fumariaceae 916 genera, 106 spp.): Fumaria (fumitory) Fumaria indica
Cruciferae (375 genera, 3200 spp.): Brassica (30 spp.) Brassica olerecca, Brassica juncea, Brassica alba
Nasturtium (6 spp.)
Lepidium sativum

Rosales (19 families)
Hamamelidaceae (26 genera, 106 spp.): Hamamelis (witch hazel – 6 spp.)
Crassulaceae (35 genera, 1500 spp.): Sedum (600 spp.)
Saxifragaceae (30 genera, 580 spp.): Saxifrage (370 spp.)
Ribes (blackcurrant)
Rosaceae (100 genera, 2000 spp.): Malus (apple – 35 spp.)
Rubus ( raspberry – 250 spp.)
Rosa ( rose – 250 spp.) Rosa centifolia
Prunus ( cherry – 430 spp.) Prunus persica,
Prunus puddum
Crataegus (hawthorn – 200 spp.)
Crataegus oxycantha
Amygdalus commonis
Leguminosae (12000 spp.) subdivided into:
Papilionaceae, Mimosoideae, & Caesalpinoideae
Papilionaceae (377 genera): Myroxylon (balsam of tolu – 2 spp.)
Medicago (100 spp.) Medicago sativa
Trifolium (clover – 300 spp.)
Astragalus (2000 spp.)
Trigonella (fenugreek – 100 spp.)
Trigonella foenum-graecum
Cajanus cajan, Sesbenia grandiflora,
Clitoria ternatea, Pterocarpus marsupium, Pterocarpus santalinus, Psoralea corylifolia, Sesbania egyptica, Mucuna puriens, Pongamia glabra, Dolichos biflorus, Indigofera tinctoria, Uraria picta, Erythrina indica, Crotalaria verrucosa, Tephrosia purpurea

Mimosoideae (40 genera): Mimosa (monkey flower – 450 spp.) Mimosa pudica
Acacia (750 – 800 spp.) Acacia catechu, Acacia farnesiana, Acacia leucophloea
Prosopis specigera, Albizzia lebbek

Geraniales ( 9 families)
Geraniaceae (5 genera, 750 spp): Geranium (cranesbill 400 spp.)
Pelargonium (geranium – 250 spp.)
Oxalis corniculata
Zygophyllaceae (25 genera, 240 spp.): Guaiacum (lignum vitae – 6 spp.)
Tribulis terrestris (gokshura) #9
Fagonia cretica,
Linaceae (19 genera, 290 spp.): Linum (flax – 230 spp.) Linum usitatissimum
Euphorbiaceae (300 genera, 6000 spp.): Euphorbia ( 2000 spp.) Euphorbia hirta, Euphorbia thymifolia, Euphorbia neriifolia
Emblica officinalis (amalaki) #1, Phyllanthus niruri, Baliospermum montanum, Taraxacum officinalis, Croton tiglium, Mallotus philippinensis, Croton oblongifolius, Putranjiva roxburghii,
Rutales (12 families)
Rutaceae (150 genera, 900 spp.): Zanthoxylum (prickly ash – 30 spp.)
Barosma ( buchu)
Citrus medica, Citrus limonum, Bergera koenigi,
Aegle marmelos, Peganum harmala, Ruta Graveolens
Burseraceae (16 genera, 500 spp.): Commiphora (myrrh – 185 spp.) Commiphora myrrha, Commiphora mukul (guggulu) #11
Boswellia (frankincense – 24 spp.) Boswellia serrata

Sapindales (10 families)
Anacardiaceae (60 genera, 600 spp.): Rhus (poison ivy – 250 spp.)
Pistacia (pistachio – 10 spp.) Pistacia chinensia, Pistacia lentiscus
Mangifera indica, Semecarpus anacardium,
Lannea grandis, Rhus succedanea, Buchanania lanzan
Aceraceae: Acer (maples – 100 spp.)
Hippocastanaceae (2 genera, 15 spp): Aesculus (horse chestnut – 13 spp.)

Celastrales ( 13 families)
Celastraceae (55 genera, 850 spp.): Euonymus (spindle trees – 176 spp.)
Celastrus paniculata

Rhamnales ( 3 families)
Rhamnaceae (59 genera, 900 spp.): Rhamnus (buckthorn – 110 spp.) Rhamnus purshiana
Zyzyphys (jujubes – 100 spp.) Zizyphus sativus, Zizyphus jujuba
Vitaceae (65 spp.): Vitus (grapes) Vitis quandriangularis, Vitis vinifera

Malvales (7 families)
Tiliaceae (50 genera, 450 spp.): Tilia (linden – 50 spp.)
Corchorus acutangulus, Grewia tiliaefolia, Grewia populifolia, Grewia hirsuta, Grewia asiatica,
Abrus precatorius
Malvaceae (75 genera, 1000 spp.): Malva (mallows – 40 spp.)
Gossypium (cottons – 47 spp.) Gossypium herbaceum
Hibiscus (300 spp.) Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Hibiscus esculentus, Hibiscus abelmoschus
Althaea (marshmallow – 12 spp.) Althea officinalis
Sida cordifolia (bala) #3, Sida humilis
Abutilon indicum, Pavonia odorata, Adansonia digitata, Thespesia populnea, Bombax malabaricum
Stereculiaceae (60 genera, 700 spp.): Theobroma (cocoa – 30 spp.)
Cola (cola nuts – 125 spp.)

Violales ( 20 families)
Violaceae (22 genera, 900 spp.): Viola (violets – 500 spp.) Viola odorata
Turneraceae (7 genera, 120 spp.): Turnera (damiana – 61 spp.)
Passifloraceae (12 genera, 600 spp.): Passiflora (passion flower – 500 spp.)

Myrtiflorae (17 families)
Myrtaceae (1000 genera, 3000 spp.): Eugenia (cloves – 1000 spp.) Eugenia jambolana
Eucalyptus (eucalyptus – 500 spp.) Eucalyptus citriodora
Melaleuca (ti tree – 100 spp.)
Barringtonia acutangula, Syzygium aromaticum
Onagraceae (21 genera, 640 spp.): Oenothera (evening primrose – 80 spp.)

Umbelliflorae (7 families)
Araliaceae (55 genera, 700 spp. ): Panax (ginsengs – 8 spp.)
Avalia (spikenard – 25 spp.)
Eleutherococcus (siberian ginseng)
Keder (ivy – 15 spp.)
Umbelliferae (275 genera, 2850 spp.) Hydrocotyle (gotu kola – 100 spp.) Centella asiatica,
Hydrocotyle asiatica (mandukaparni) #6
Eryngium (sea holly – 230 spp.)
Coriandrum (coriander – 2 spp.) Coriandrum sativum
Conium (hemlock – 4 spp.)
Apium (celery – 1 spp.)
Petroselinum (parsley – 5 spp.) Petroselinum crispum
Carum (caraway - 30 spp.)
Pimpinella (aniseed – 150 spp.)
Foeniculum (fennel – 5 spp.) Foeniculum vulgare
Ligusticum (60 spp.)
Angelica ( angelica – 80 spp.) Angelica archengelica, Angelica glaucam
Daucus (carrot – 60 spp.) Daucas carota
Ammi (10 spp.)
Ferula foetida, Cuminum cyminum, Anethum sowa, Trachispermum amami

Ericales (5 families)
Ericaceae (80 genera, 2000 spp.): Vaccinium (bilberry – 400 spp.)
Gaultheris (wintergreen – 210 spp.)
Arctostaphylos ( bearberry – 71 spp.)

Oleales (1family)
Oleaceae (29 genera, 600 spp.): Olea (olive – 200 spp.)
Jasminum grandiflorum, Jasminum sambac, Jasmin auriculata, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis
Gentianales ( 7 families)
Loganiaceae (18 genera, 50-0 spp.): Strychnos (nox vomica – 200 spp.) Strychnos nuxvomica, Strychnos potatorum
Gelsemium (yellow jasmine – 2 spp.)
Gentianaceae ( 80 genera, 1000 spp.): Gentiana (gentian – 400 spp.)
Swertia (100 spp.) Swertia chirata
Apocynaceae (250 genera, 2000 spp.): Vinca (periwinkle – 5 spp.)
Rauwolfia (100 spp.) Rauwolfia serpentina
Nerium indicum, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Alstonia scholaris
Asclepiadaceae (130 genera, 2000 spp.): Asclepias (pleurisy root – 120 spp.)
Marsdenia (condurango)
Gymnema sylvestra (shardunika) #20
Rubiaceae (500 genera, 6000 spp.): Coffea (coffee – 40 spp.)
Rubia cordifolia (manjishtha) #16
Tubiflorae (26 families)
Boraginaceae (100 genera, 2000 spp.): Symphytum (comfrey – 25 spp.) Symphytum officinale
Borage (3 – spp.)
Trichodesma indicum, Ehretia laevis, Onosma bracteatum
Verbenaceae (100 genera, 3000 spp.): Verbena (vervain – 250 spp.)
Labiatae (200 genera, 3300 spp.): Rosemarinus (rosemary – 3 spp.)
Scutellaria (skullcap – 300 spp.)
Lavandula (lavender – 28 spp.)
Marrubium (horehound – 40 spp.)
Nepata (catnip – 250 spp.)
Ballota (black horehound – 35 spp.)
Stachys (wood betony – 300 spp.)
Salvia (sage – 700 spp.)
Origanum (marjoram – 20 spp.)
Thymus (thyme – 300 spp.)
Mentha ( peppermint – 25 spp.)
Pogosternon ( patchouli – 40 spp.)
Ocimum (basil – 150 spp.)
Leonurus (motherwort – 14 spp.)
Premna integrifolia, Clerondendron serratum, Clerodendron infortunatum, Gmelina arborea, Lippis nodiflora, Vitex negundo, Callicarpa macrophylla
Solanaceae (90 genera, 2000 spp.): Atropa (belladonna – 4 spp.)
Hyoscymus (henbane – 20 spp.)
Capsicum (cayenne – 50 spp.)
Solanum (potato – 1700 spp.)
Datura (thorn apple – 10 spp.)
Nicotiniana (tobacco – 66 spp.)
Withania somnifera (aÂvagandha) #2
Scrophulariaceae (220 genera, 3000 spp.): Verbascum (mullein – 306 spp.)
Scrophularia (figwort – 300 spp.)
Digitalis (foxglove – 30 spp.) Digitalis purpurea
Euphrasis (eyebright – 200 spp.)
Picrorrhiza kurroa (kutki/katuka) #13

Plantaginales (1 family)
Plantaginaceae (3 genera, 270 spp.): Plantago (plantain) Plantago psyllium

Dipsacales (4 families)
Caprifoliaceae (12 genera, 450 spp.): Viburnum (cramp bark – 200 spp.)
Lonicera (honeysuckle – 200 spp.)
Sambucus (elder – 40 spp.)
Valerianaceae (13 genera, 360 spp.): Valeriana (valerian – 200 spp.)
Valeriana spp.(Tagar) #22
Nardostachys jatamamsi (jatamamsi) #14

Campanulales (8 families)
Campmanulaceae (70 genera, 2000 spp.): Lobelia (lobelia – 300 spp.)
Codonopsis
Compositae (900 genera, 13000 spp.): Solidago (golden rod - 100 spp.)
Bellis (daisy – 15 spp.)
Achillea (yarrow – 200 spp.) Achillea millifolia
Anthemus (roman chamomile – 200 spp.)
Matricaria chamomilla (german chamomile – 40 spp.)
Tanacetum (feverfew – 60 spp.)
Artemisia (wormwood – 400 spp.)Artemisia maritima, Artemisia sieversiana, Artemisia vulgari
Inula (elecampagne – 200 spp.)
Calendule (calendula – 30 spp.)
Eupatorium (boneset – 1200 spp.)
Arnica (arnica – 32 spp.)
Arctium (burdock – 5 spp.)
Carduus (thistles – 100 spp.)
Taraxacum (dandelion – 60 spp.)
Lactuca (wild lettuce – 100 spp.)
Eclipta alba (bhringaraja) #4
Anacylus pyrethrum, Vernonia anthelminticum, Matricaria recutita, Eclipta alba, Centipeda minima, Tagetus erecta, Elephatopus scaber, Cichorium intybus, Saussurea lappa, Blumea lacera, Sphaeranthus indicus

Liliiflorae (17 families)
Liliaceae (250 genera, 3700 spp.): Veratrum (hellbore – 25 spp.)
Colchicum (crocus – 65 spp.) Colchicum luteum
Aloe (aloe – 330 spp.) Aloe vera
Allium (garlic – 450 spp.) Allum sativum, Allium cepa
Convallaria (lily of the valley – 1sp.)
Smilax ( sarsaparilla – 65 spp.) Smilax china, Smilax zeylanica
Asparagus racemosus (Shatavari) #21, Asparagus adscendens
Gloriosa superba, Urginea indica
Dioscoraceae (15 genera, 750 spp.): Dioscorea (wild yam – 600 spp.)
Iridaceae (620 genera, 800 spp.): Crocus (saffron – 75 spp.)
Iris (blue flag – 300 spp.) Iris vesicolor

Graminales (1 family)
Gramineae (620 genera, 10000 spp.): Triticum (wheat – 20 spp.)
Agropyron (crab grass – 150 spp.)
Zea (corn silk – 1 sp.)
Andropogon citratus, Cynodon dactylon, Triticum aestivum, Saccharum spontaneum, Saccharum munja, Saccharum officinarum, Desmostachya bipinnata, Arundo donax, Andropogan vetiveria, Andropogon muricatus, Bambusa arundinacea

Principes (1 family)
Palmae (217 genera, 2500 spp.): Sabal (saw palmetto – 25 spp.)
Phoenix sylvestris, Daemenorops draco, Cocos nucifera, Borassus flabellifera

Spathifloae (2 families)
Araceae (115 genera, 2000 spp.): Acorus (sweet flag – 2 spp.) Acorus calamus, Acorus catamus
Pistia stratiotus

Scitamineae (5 families)
Zingiberaceae (49 genera, 1300 spp.): Curcuma (turmeric – 5 spp.) Curcuma amada, Curcuma longa, Curcuma zedoria, Curcuma angustifolia, Curcuma aromatica
Zingiber (ginger – 90 spp.) Zingiberis officinalis

Microspermae (1 family)
Orchidaceae (735 genera, 17000 spp.): Cypripedium (ladies slipper – 50 spp.),
Orchis latifolia, Vanda roxburghii
PRONUNCIATION GUIDE
Reprinted from: Flowering Plants of the South West Woodlands, by Teralene S. Foxx & Dorothy Hoard, Otowi Crossing Press, Los Alamos, NM, 1995, pp. 196-197
Scientific names are derived in two ways: 1) Latin or Greek roots are combined to form a word indicating something about the organism and 2) the latinizing of names of people, places, or things. In the body of this manuscript, the derivation of each scientific name has been given. Here is presented some basic information about their pronunciation. Even though the names are from Latin or Latinized the way they are spoken does not always follow the rules of pure Latin but have been anglicized. There is often disagreement among botanists as to proper pronunciation. However, knowledge of rules of Latin can be a guide. Presented below are some of these rules, a pronunciation key, a listing of some scientific names used in this book, and their pronunciation as found in The New Pronouncing Dictionary of Plant Names' Latin for Taxonomists and Shrubs and Trees of the Southwest Uplands.

Rules

1) Accents: If a word has only two syllables, the accent falls on the first syllable. When a word has more than two syllables, the accent may fall on the next-to-last or third-from-last syllable.

2) Vowels: Vowels may be pronounced with either long or short sounds.

3) Diphthongs: A number of vowels are written together and pronounced as one sound. See the Pronunciation Key for pronunciation of the various diphthongs.

4) Consonants: The various consonants have different sounds.
c is pronounced as k in cat before a, o, oi, or u
c is pronounced as s in sent before ae, i, e, oe, or y
ph is pronounced as f
ch is pronounced as k in chorus
x is pronounced as z when it is the initial letter
The first letter of paired consonants is silent, i. e., Pseudotsuga.

5) Family names usually end in -aceae, pronounced as a-see-ee. In this book some family names end in -ae, pronounced -ee. In some books, the families whose names end in -ae have been given names ending in -aceae to make them more consistent. Below are listed the family names ending in -ae in this book and the corresponding names ending in -aceae.
· Grass family Gramineae-Poaceae
· Mint family Labiatae-Lamiaceae
· Mustard family Cruciferae-Brassicaceae
· Sunflower family Compositae-Asteraceae

6) Synonomy: Synonyms are discarded names for the same plant. In this book A Flora of New Mexico by Martin and Hutchins was used as the authority for scientific names. Other books or recent monographs may assign different names to the plants listed in this publication. Since the goal of the author was to have this book be a beginning text, it was determined that consistency of terminology with existing flora was important for the beginning student. For information on synonymy see A Checklist of Vascular Plants of the Pajarito Plateau and Jemez Mountains by Foxx and Tierney.

7) The penultimate syllable is strong.


Pronunciation Key
Reprinted from: Flowering Plants of the South West Woodlands, by Teralene S. Foxx & Dorothy Hoard, Otowi Crossing Press, Los Alamos, NM, 1995, pp. 196-197

When the vowel of diphthong sounds like the word indicated it will be written in the manner to the right of the column. Capitalized letters within the pronunciation guide indicate the accent.
a as in fat a
a as in fate ay
a as in far ah
a as in fall ah
a as in Persia uh
a as in fare eh
e as in met eh
e as in me ee
e as in her ur
i as in pin ih
i as in pine eye
o as in not ah
o as in note oh
o as in move oo
o as in nor o
us as in tub yew
y a in symbol ih
y as in by eye
Diphthongs
ae as in Caesar ee
ai as in rail ay
au as in auk aw
ei as in height eye
eu as in feud yew
ia as in Asia uh
oe as in bee ee
ou as in soup oo
ui as in ruin ew
oi as in oil oy


Abies (AY-beez)
Acanthus (ay-KAN-thus)
Acaulescent (as-kaw-LEWS-ehnt)
acaulis (ay-KAWL-ihs)
Acer (AY-sur)
Achillea (ak-ih-LEE-ah)
Aconitum (ak-oh-NEYE--tuhm)
Actaea (ak-TEE-ah)
Adianthum (ay-dee-AN--thum)
Agrostis (ah-GRAHS-tihs)
Allanthus (ay-LAN-thus)
alba (AL-bah)
albescens (al-BEHS-enz)
albicans (AL-bihk-anz)
Allium (AL-ee-uhm)
ainifolia (uhl-nih-FOHL-lih-uh)
Alnus (AL-nus; UHL-nuhs)
alpestris (al-PEHS-trihs)
altissima (a1-TIHS--ih-mah)
Amaranthus (am-ah-RAN-thuhs)
Amelanchier (am-eh-LAN-kih-ehr)
americana (ah-mehr-ih-KAY-nah)
Amorpha (ah-MOR-fah)
andromeda (an-DRAHM-eh-dah)
Andropogon (an-droh-POH-gahn)
Androsace (an-DROH-saye-seh)
Anemone (ah-NEHM-oh-nee)

Angelica (an-JEHL-ih-kah)
angustifollium (an-guhs-tih-FOHL-lih-uhm)
annuus (AN-yew-ahs)
Antennaria (an-teh-NEH-rih-uh)
antirrhinum (an-tih-REYE-nuhm)
aquaticum (ah-KWAT-ih-kuhm)
aquifolium (ak-wih-FOHL-lih-uhm)
Aquilegia (ak-wih-LEE-jih-uh)
Arabis (AR-ah-bihs)
Aralia (ah-RAY-1ih-uh)
arborescens (ahr-bo-REHS-ehnz)
Arctostaphylos (ahr-toh-STAF-ih-lohs)
Arenaria (ar-eh-NAY-r-ih-ah, ar-eh-NEH-rih-ah)
argentea (ahr-jehn-TEE-ah)
Artemi'sia (ahr-TEH-meez--ih-uh, ahr-TEE-mihsh-ih-uh)
arvensis (ahr-VEHN-sihs)
Asclepias (as-KLEE-pih-as, as-KLEH-pih-as)
asperifol-ia (as-pehr-ih-FOHL-ih-uh)
asperula (as-PUR-yew-lah)
Aster (AS-tur)
Astragalus (as-TRAG-ah-luhs)
Atriplex (AT-rih-plehks)
atropurpurea (at-ROH-pur-pur-ee-ah)
aurantiacus (aw-ran-tih-AY-kuhs)
avicularis (ah-vihk-yew-LA-rihs)
barbatus (bahr-BAY-tuhs)
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Tokyo Code) – Contents

International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Tokyo Code),
Electronic version

CONTENTS
Preface
Key to the Numbering of the Articles, Notes and Recommendations
Important Dates in the Code
Preamble

Division I Principles
Division II Rules and Recommendations
Chapter I Ranks of taxa (Art. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
Chapter II Names of taxa (general provisions)
Section I Definitions (Art. 6)
Section 2 Typification (Art. 7, 8, 9, 10)
Section 3 Priority (Art. II and 12.)
Section 4 Limitation of the principle of priority (Art. 13, 14. 15)
Chapter III Nomenclature of taxa according to their rank
Section I Names of taxa above the rank of family (Art. 16, 17)
Section 2 Names of families and subfamilies, tribes and subtribes (Art. 18. 19)
Section 3 Names of genera and subdivisions of genera (Art. 20, 21, 22)
Section 4 Names of species (Art. 23)
Section 5 Names of taxa below the rank of species (infraspecific taxa) (Art. 24, 25. 26, 27)
Section 6 Names of plants in cultivation (Art. 28)
Chapter IV Effective and valid publication
Section I Conditions and dates of effective publication (Art. _29, 30. 31 )
Section 2 Conditions and dates of valid publication of names (Art. 32. 33, 34, 35, 36, 37. 38,
39,40,41,42,43,44,45)
Section 3 Citation of authors' names for purposes of precision (Art. l<\ 47, 48, 49, 50)
Section 4 General recommendations on citation (Rec.._50A-F)
Chapter V Rejection of names (Art. 51, 52, 53, 54, 5_5, 56, 57, 58)
Chapter VI Names of fungi with a pleomorphic life cycle (Art. 59)
Chapter VII Orthography of names and epithets and gender of generic rimes
Section I Orthography of names and epithets (Art. 60 and 61)




http://www.bgbm.fu-berlm.de/iapt/nomenclature/code/tokyo-e/Contents.htm 1/31/2002

International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Tokyo Code) - Preamble

International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Tokyo Code), Electronic version

PREAMBLE
1. Botany requires a precise and simple system of nomenclature used by botanists in all countries,
dealing on the one hand with the terms which denote the ranks of taxonomic groups or units, and on the
other hand with the scientific names which are applied to the individual taxonomic groups of plants. The
purpose of giving a name to a taxonomic group is not to indicate its characters or history, but to supply a
means of referring to it and to indicate its taxonomic rank. This Code aims at the provision of a stable
method of naming taxonomic groups, avoiding and rejecting the use of names which may cause error or
ambiguity or throw science into confusion. Next in importance is the avoidance of the useless creation
of names. Other considerations, such as absolute grammatical correctness, regularity or euphony of
names, more or less prevailing custom, regard for persons, etc., notwithstanding their undeniable
importance, are relatively accessory.

2. The Principles form the basis of the system of botanical nomenclature.

3. The detailed Provisions are divided into Rules, set out in the Articles, and Recommendations. Examples (Ex.) are added to the rules and recommendations to illustrate them.

4. The object of the Rules is to put the nomenclature of the past into order and to provide for that of the future; names contrary to a rule cannot be maintained.

5. The Recommendations deal with subsidiary points, their object being to bring about greater uniformity and clearness, especially in future nomenclature; names contrary to a recommendation cannot, on that account, be rejected, but they are not examples to be followed.

6. The provisions regulating the modification of this Code form its last division.

7. The rules and recommendations apply to all organisms traditionally treated as plants, whether fossil or non-fossil, e.g., blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria)', fungi, including chytrids, oomycetes, and slime moulds; photosynthetic protists and taxonomically related non-photosynthetic groups.

8. Special provisions are needed for certain groups of plants: The International code of nomenclature for cultivated plants-1980 was adopted by the International Commission for the Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants; provisions for the names of hybrids appear in App-J.

9. The only proper reasons for changing a name are either a more profound knowledge of the facts
resulting from adequate taxonomic study or the necessity of giving up a nomenclature that is contrary to
the rules.

10. In the absence of a relevant rule or where the consequences of rules are doubtful, established custom
is followed.

http://www.bgbm.fu-berlin.de/iapt/nomenclature/code/tokyo-e/Preamble.htm 1/31/2002

Plant Parts in Latin and their Meaning and Use in the Binomial Classification Scheme
Source: Willard PhD, Terry, Textbook of Advanced Herbology p. 338



Plant Part

Balsamum
Bulbus
Cortex
Flos
Folium
Folliculus
Fructus
Gemma
Glandula
Gummi
Herba
Legumen
Lignum
Nux
Percarpium
Pix
Pulpa
Radix
Resina
Rhizoma
Semen
Siliqua
Stigma
Stipes
Strobilus
Summitates
Tuber
Turio

Meaning

Balsam (resin)
Bulb
Bark
Flower
Leaf
Pod (follicle)
Fruit
Bud
Gland
Gum
Herb
Capsule, pod
Wood
Nut
Fruit skin
Tar
Fruit Pulp
Root
Resin
Rootstock
Seed
Pod, husk
Stigma, spot
Stem
Cone
Twigs
Tuber
Shoot

Example

Balsam Tolu
Bulbus Scillae
Cortex Cascarae
Flores Malvae
Folium hydrangeae
Folliculi Sennae
Frutus Piperis Nigri
Gemmae Populi
Glandulae lupuli
Gummi arabicum
Herba Lobelia
Ligumina Phaseoli
Lignum Sappan
Nux vomica
Percarpium Arecae
Pix betulina
Pulpa tamarindorum
Radix Ginseng
Resina Jalapae
Rhizoma Bistortae
Semen Plantaginis
Siliqua dulcis
Stigamata Croci
Stipites Dulcamarae
Storbili Lupuli
Summitates Sabinae
Tubera Salep
Turiones Pini





Classification – Review Questions

What is the meaning of the term, “taxonomy?”
What are the 7 types of classification schemes listed in the Handbook?
What is the difference between “organized” and “unorganized drugs”? Give an example of each.
What is the limitation of a biogenetic scheme?
What scheme gives its name to the presumption that a drug’s pharmacodynamics is ultimately important?

The term Ayurvedic herb is born out of ethnobotany more than a system of medicine—T or F ?

The modern binomial system is formally known by the letters ICBN-- T F ? What is the full name of this convention and what is the present version of it called?

What is the mnemonic device for remembering the classification scheme under kingdom?

How many kingdoms are there? How many species are estimated to exist?

What is the convention for suffixes denoting order, family?

What language(s) is (are) used for naming members of the ICBN?

What is the convention surrounding accents?

As in Sanskrit one will always know the pronunciation of a given vowel—T F ?

What is the term for a grouping of letters grouped together to form a single sound?

How many classifications have been enumerated by one researcher of ¨yurvedic material medica?

The names for a plant part often find their names in the Latin name of a plant; what is an example for the following--bulb, flower, leaf, nut, gum, seed, rootstock, twigs?

What is the meaning of “penultimate syllable?” What accent does it have?

What is the convention regarding the pronunciation of “c?”

What is the convention for pronouncing a diphthong of paired consonants?

The order, Umbelliflorae, has an interesting aggregation of medicines and food items—name 5.

The classification of plants and life forms is based upon what important features?

What plant is known by the names: Centella asiatica, Hydrocotyle asiatica? Explain.